Theories of development
1. PIAGET’S
STAGE THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean
Piaget (1896-1980) observed his children (and their process of making sense of
the world around them) and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the
mind processes new information encountered. He posited that children progress
through 4 stages and that they all do so in the same order. These four stages
are:
- Sensorimotor
stage (Birth to 2
years old). The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and
reality (and how things work) through interactions with the environment.
It is able to differentiate between itself and other objects. Learning
takes place via assimilation (the organization of information and
absorbing it into existing schema) and accommodation (when an object
cannot be assimilated and the schemata have to be modified to include the
object.
- Preoperational
stage (ages 2 to 4).
The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete
physical situations. Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by
important features.
- Concrete
operations
(ages 7 to 11). As physical experience accumulates, accomodation is
increased. The child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize,
creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.
- Formal
operations
(beginning at ages 11 to 15). Cognition reaches its final form. By this
stage, the person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational
judgements. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning.
His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.
2. FOWLER'S
SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT:
Fowler's stages
Faith is seen as a holistic
orientation, and is concerned with the individual's relatedness to the
universal. Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing and
relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to
others and the world.
- Stage
0 – "Primal
or Undifferentiated" faith (birth to 2 years), is characterized
by an early learning of the safety of their environment (i.e. warm, safe
and secure vs. hurt, neglect and abuse). If consistent nurture is
experienced, one will develop a sense of trust and safety about the universe
and the divine. Conversely, negative experiences will cause one to develop
distrust with the universe and the divine. Transition to the next stage
begins with integration of thought and languages which facilitates the use
of symbols in speech and play.
- Stage
1 – "Intuitive-Projective"
faith (ages of three to seven), is characterized by the psyche's
unprotected exposure to the Unconscious.
- Stage
2 – "Mythic-Literal"
faith (mostly in school children), stage two persons have a strong belief
in the justice and reciprocity of the universe,
and their deities are almost always anthropomorphic.
- Stage
3 – "Synthetic-Conventional"
faith (arising in adolescence; aged 12 to adulthood) characterized by conformity to religious authority and the
development of a personal identity. Any conflicts with one's beliefs are
ignored at this stage due to the fear of threat from inconsistencies.
- Stage
4 – "Individuative-Reflective"
faith (usually mid-twenties to late thirties) a stage of angst and struggle. The individual
takes personal responsibility for his or her beliefs and feelings. As one is able to reflect on
one's own beliefs, there is an openness to a new complexity of faith, but
this also increases the awareness of conflicts in one's belief.
- Stage
5 – "Conjunctive"
faith (mid-life crisis) acknowledges paradox and transcendence relating reality behind the
symbols of inherited systems. The individual resolves conflicts from
previous stages by a complex understanding of a multidimensional,
interdependent "truth" that cannot be explained by any
particular statement.
- Stage
6 – "Universalizing"
faith, or what some might call "enlightenment". The individual would treat
any person with compassion as he or she views people as from a universal
community, and should be treated with universal principles of love and
justice.
3. ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund
Freud,
Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud’s
theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan.
One
of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development
of ego identity.1 Ego identity is the conscious sense of self
that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego
identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity,
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in
an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of
mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego
quality.2 If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge
with a sense of inadequacy.
In
each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either
developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During
these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential
for failure.
·
The
first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between
birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.2
·
Because
an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
·
If
a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to
develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent
and unpredictable.
·
The
second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.2
·
Like
Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson
believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of
control and a sense of independence.
·
Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
·
Children
who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who
do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
·
During
the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interaction.
·
Children
who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and
lack of initiative.3
·
This
stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
·
Through
social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
·
Children
who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be
successful.
·
During
adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense
of self.
·
Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration
will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires
will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
·
This
stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
·
Erikson
believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships
that are committed and secure.
·
Remember
that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self
tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
·
During
adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
·
Those
who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to
the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
·
This
phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
·
Those
who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with
feelings of bitterness and despair.
·
Those
who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a
general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even
when confronting death.
·
4.
SIGMUND FREUD PSYCHO SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT:
According to Sigmund
Freud,
personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a
large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later
in life.Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known,
but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality
develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking
energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous
areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force
behind behavior.If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the
result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the
appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For
example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on
others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During
the oral stage, the infant's primary source of
interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives
pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting
and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are
responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust
and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The
primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral
fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.
The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder
Control
During
the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary
focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child
has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads
to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According
to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the
toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children
feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during
this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive and
creative adults.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
During
the phallic
stage, the
primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also
begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud
also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus
complex
describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by
the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The
term Electra
complex has
been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls.
Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually,
the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy
was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage
The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty (12yrs)
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are
Inactive
During
the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The
development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm.
The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests.
The
latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still
present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and
social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.
The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to
Death (12 and above)
Erogenous Zone: Maturing
Sexual Interests
During
the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages
the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully,
the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this
stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
5.
Kohlberg's
Theory of Moral Development
Stages of
Moral Development
Moral
development is a major topic of interest in both psychology and education. One
of the best known theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg who
modified and expanded upon Jean
Piaget's
work to form a theory that explained the development of moral reasoning.
Piaget
described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg's theory of
moral development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg
extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual
process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
Level 1. Preconventional
Morality0-7yrs
·
Stage 1
- Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
·
Stage 2
- Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional
Morality 7-12yrs
·
Stage 3
- Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
·
Stage 4
- Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional
Morality 12-18yrs
·
Stage 5
- Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
·
Stage 6
- Universal Principles
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
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